The Increasing Fees of Kwantlen Polytechnic University

Introduction Higher education has become one of the most valuable commodities in the contemporary world. Higher education plays valuable roles such as being the engine for technological advancement and economic development, a platform for workplace training, as well as repository of the general human knowledge (Losco Fife 73). Achievement of higher education remains as one of the most significant envy of many, yet rising costs of higher education are moving it far beyond the reach of those who need it the most.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on The Increasing Fees of Kwantlen Polytechnic University specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It is crucial that new ideologies be formed to address the challenges facing higher education institutions such as Kwantlen Polytechnic University that contribute to their rising fees. Funding higher education is characterized by the spending of large amounts of public resources. Despit e the fact that this spending affects the opportunities of many, majority have not had sufficient access to either higher education or the structure that makes decisions regarding higher education. This essay paper seeks to investigate the increasing fees of Kwantlen Polytechnic University. An Overview of Kwantlen Polytechnic University Kwantlen is a modern and dynamic institution of higher learning established in 1981 by the government of British Columbia. Kwantlen Polytechnic University has four main campuses offering over 120 degree, diploma, certificate, as well as citations academic programs. The four campuses are located in the British Columbia’s Vancouver Metro region in Cloverdale, Surrey, Langley and Richmond. The current annual student population of Kwantlen Polytechnic University is approximately 17,500 students. The university polytechnic designs, develops and offers academic programs as well as other applied credentials geared towards meeting both current and fut ure needs of regional, as well as international employment markets. Kwantlen Polytechnic University provides its students with an opportunity to bridge or rather upgrade their certificate, as well as diploma academic credentials into degrees. This is crucial as it enhances academic and professional bridging of both applied and technical academic programs. The main role of Kwantlen Polytechnic University is to serve the British Columbia region through innovation, research and teaching. The university polytechnic is committed to serving the diverse need of the region.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More As a dynamic and modern institution of higher learning in Canada, Kwantlen Polytechnic University prioritizes the academic and learning needs of its students. This prioritization of students’ academic and learning needs is achieved through focusing on integrating theory, pr actice and critical thinking and insight. Kwantlen Polytechnic University is also committed to providing its students with the necessary understanding and skills to enable them to become aware, engaged, as well as responsible citizens. The programs offered at Kwantlen Polytechnic University is also geared towards enabling students pursue fulfilling academic, professional, as well as technical carriers. As a learning or rather teaching, research and innovations institution of higher learning, Kwantlen Polytechnic University emphasizes the need for its programs to promote human capacity in influencing and improving the world. The quest to achieve this entire mandate is one of the most important factors that continue to influence the increasing fees of Kwantlen Polytechnic University. Kwantlen Polytechnic University also embedded multiple pathways into the traditional, as well as career programs that it offers its students. The requirements of completing these programs cost a little mo re than the conventional degree programs offered in other institutions of higher learning in the region. This is one of the determinants for the increasing fees of Kwantlen Polytechnic University. Kwantlen Polytechnic University offers students degree, diploma, certificate, as well as citation programs in broad areas of science disciplines and traditional liberal arts, technology fields and in trades, as well as other professional and career- based programs. Diploma, certificate and citation programs offered at Kwantlen Polytechnic University are specially designed in order to bridge into career and professional degree programs. The university polytechnic offers highly successful, professional and career-oriented programs in qualified studies. This enables Kwantlen Polytechnic University to provide students of varied abilities and talents with access pathways to support and opportunities to enable them achieve their full potential. In order to realize this commitment, Kwantlen Polyt echnic University has to raise its fees which will be felt by the students in catering for the financial requirements of their career and professional programs. In order to meet the needs of non-tradition students’ quest for additional academic, career and professional opportunities, the students must be ready to meet the full costs of such programs.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on The Increasing Fees of Kwantlen Polytechnic University specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Increasing Fees in Post-Secondary Institutions Background Information Sweet and Anisef (57) posit that higher education has been a shared responsibility of the state through taxes, the students and the parents through their own savings. Higher education is associated with benefits and financial compensation in the long run, hence the need to pursue learning at institutions of higher learning such as Kwantlen Polytechnic University. Studies have related higher levels of education to increased earnings and low rates of unemployment, hence justifying the increasing need and personal responsibility for the increasing costs of obtaining higher education (Sweet Anisef 57). Recent policies in Canada regarding students education funding emphasizes the role of individual students in paying for a portion of the higher education. These higher education policies in Canada are geared towards creating consistency in restructuring between the education sector and other public sectors such as public service and health. However, the looser in all these educational restructuring policies is the student from financially disadvantaged background. These groups of students have found it extremely difficult to marshal the necessary financial resources in order to gain entry or rather access to institutions of higher learning such as Kwantlen Polytechnic University (Sweet Anisef 57). In 1995 a program dubbed Canadian Health and Social tran sfer (CHST) was introduced by the federal government to facilitate post-secondary school education (Sweet Anisef 58). The program involved federal funding reductions in terms of the transfer of resources to institutions of higher learning, health and social welfare. The response of the provinces such as British Columbia was higher fees and reduced grants to public institutions of higher learning such as Kwantlen Polytechnic University. According to Sweet and Anisef (Sweet Anisef 58), this response shifted the financial responsibility of funding higher education to the students and their families. Between 1998 and 1999, the fees paid by students accounted for above 20% of institutions of higher learning revenues. There is disparity in terms of the fees attributed to students from province to province. For example, in the province of Nova Scotia fees paid by students accounted for 28.5 % of the revenue of universities. The increasing fees of institution of higher learning in Canada between 1993 and 2004 has rose up to 98.9 % with the province of Ontario having the greatest increase of 137.2 % and the province of Quebec having the lowest increase of 20.2 % (Sweet Anisef 58). In the province of British Columbia where Kwantlen Polytechnic University is located, a tuition fee freeze of seven years was instituted up to 2001-2002 academic year. The tuition fee freezing resulted into a 5 % reduction in the cost of funding higher education (Sweet Anisef 58).Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More However, after the elections of the Campbell administration, tuition fees were deregulated and institutions of higher learning such as Kwantlen Polytechnic University started increasing their fees to the national average up to 2006. The deregulation of tuition fees by the Campbell government was the beginning of the increasing fees of most institution of higher learning such as Kwantlen Polytechnic University in the province of British Columbia (Sweet Anisef 58). Higher education plays essential roles of providing avenues for students to pursue opportunities in learning, research, innovation and public social service. More than three quarters of students in higher learning institutions are usually enrolled in public institutions of higher learning such as Kwantlen Polytechnic University in the British Columbia region. This therefore, means that universities, colleges and other institutions of higher learning must always operate in a manner that upholds the quality of programs provi ded to students despite the hard economic times, rising inflation rates, as well as the sky-rocking prices (Kane Orszag 2). Thus, any decline in the quality of academic, career and professional programs offered by institutions of higher learning could result into troubling implications. The funding of public institutions of higher learning such as Kwantlen Polytechnic University is closely related to the quality of such institutions. Funding restrictions is a critical issue of concern because it substantially influences the quality of public institutions of higher learning (Kane Orszag 2). The level of quality of institutions of higher learning such as Kwantlen Polytechnic University influences, social well-being, income inequality, as well as macro-economic performance of a regions such as British Columbia. The quest for the maintenance of quality of Kwantlen Polytechnic University is a significant reason for the increasing fees of Kwantlen Polytechnic University. An interesting co ncern would be whether smooth and sustainable state funding of institutions of higher learning like Kwantlen Polytechnic University would help with the reduction of fees of such institutions. The expenditure arising from various operational, instructional, researches, academic are some of the most important functions of the Kwantlen Polytechnic University that has led to the increasing fees (Kane Orszag 5). Thus, by smoothing financial assistance for higher education is likely affect the current trend Kwantlen Polytechnic University appropriations as an institution of higher learning. If the state of British Columbia initiates long term horizons and budgets over the medium and long-term, then funding of public institutions will significantly determine the level of appropriations of expenditure in institutions such as Kwantlen Polytechnic University. In the long run the chargeable fees at Kwantlen Polytechnic University will significantly normalize (Kane Orszag15). However, since thi s is not the case, the fees levied on students at Kwantlen Polytechnic University continue to increase. The increasing fees of Kwantlen Polytechnic University aimed at bridging the gap created by unlimited financial support from the public sector (Kane Orszag 15). The increasing fees of Kwantlen Polytechnic University without any offsetting means of aid to lower-income group of students negatively influences the ability of such students to fully meet the financial requirements of their programs. Despite the fact that increasing fees will enable Kwantlen Polytechnic University to operate effectively and provide qualified learning, research, innovation and public social service, the increase have a disproportionate impact on students from low income backgrounds. The increasing fees of Kwantlen Polytechnic University has been attributed to the rising costs of learning materials, institutional operation, the remuneration of instructors and other staff, inflationary pressures among other simple economic factors (Kane Orszag 15). Since funding offered by the provincial treasury does not adequately cater for the needs of Kwantlen Polytechnic University amidst the above simple economic consideration, this financial burden is passed onto the students by increasing fees. Educational Programs and the Mandate of Kwantlen Polytechnic University The university polytechnic seeks to offer curriculum programs and services that are essential in preparing their students to be global-oriented citizens. Doing so would mean Kwantlen Polytechnic University spends more on designing and developing educational, career and professional programs that mould students to become global citizens. This will eventually be reflected in the students fee, hence the rise of fees of Kwantlen Polytechnic University. Kwantlen Polytechnic University continues to emphasize its role as a significant centre for cultural, educational, learning, innovation and recreational for communities in British Columbi a region. In order to mould its students into being global citizens, Kwantlen Polytechnic University recognizes the critical role that indigenous, international and cross-cultural perspectives play in its curriculum programs. Thus, Kwantlen Polytechnic University seeks to emphasize its position as an attractive and favourable alternative option for consideration by international students seeking qualified educational, career as well as professional opportunities. The rising fees of Kwantlen Polytechnic University can also be attributed to the fact that Kwantlen Polytechnic University, as an institution of higher learning recognizes the importance of diversity, as well as freedom of expression and belief. Kwantlen Polytechnic University thus, is committed to providing its diverse student population with a secure and supportive environment for learning and individual fulfillment. Kwantlen Polytechnic University was first established as a community college, and then upgraded to a unive rsity college, and now the institution is Kwantlen Polytechnic University. Kwantlen Polytechnic University is the only public post†secondary institution of higher learning in the south Fraser area west of Abbotsford. One of the critical goals of Kwantlen Polytechnic University is to offer their students a variety of postsecondary education educational, professional and technical programs to choose from. In addition to degrees, diplomas, certificate and citation programs, Kwantlen Polytechnic University offer an extensive trades training program at our Cloverdale campus. Kwantlen Polytechnic University Cloverdale campus works closely with both local and provincial employers in order to generate placements to students who graduate at Kwantlen Polytechnic University (Murray 1). Other programs offered at Kwantlen Polytechnic University include an Adult Special Education program for adults and the elderly. English as a Second Language is another important program offered by Kwantle n Polytechnic University. Kwantlen Polytechnic University program on Adult Basic Education, as well as the program on Developmental Education are designed and developed to provide Kwantlen Polytechnic University students with the opportunity to complete their high school education and upgrade their skills. They are aimed at enabling students attain the necessary essential pre†requisites to pursue undergraduate programs, as well as to improve their educational, career and professional options (Murray 1). The nature and the requirements of these comprehensive programs means that their cost have to be slightly higher on the sides of the students, hence the rising fees of Kwantlen Polytechnic University. Kwantlen is a derived word that means â€Å"tireless runner†. This represents Kwantlen Polytechnic University emphasis on quality and excellence. As such, Kwantlen Polytechnic University in tireless quest for learning, research and innovation emphasizes the significance of upholding the values of the first Kwantlen First Nation. Learning, wisdom, distinctiveness and dignity of the culture of Kwantlen First Nation are embedded in the institution’s belief that all forms of culture around the globe in general and the British Columbia region in particular enrich each other. This belief provides all students with the opportunity for cross-cultural understanding, interaction, as well as fulfillment. Therefore, Kwantlen Polytechnic University students find it easy to fit into the global employment and professional market after their graduation at the institution. For e institutions of higher learning such as Kwantlen Polytechnic University to sustainably achieve their objectives of providing students with quality programs, they must have access to huge amounts of funding. As such, operating grants coming from the province are crucial sources of funding for institutions of learning in the British Columbia region. These operating grants are the largest single form of investment that the provincial authority makes in the institutions of higher learning in the region. However, these operating grants by the provincial authorities have not been adequate considering either the current basic inflation rates or the rapid increase in the number of students being admitted at Kwantlen Polytechnic University. As a result, student operating grants with regard to the province real grant have declined by over 8 percent since the year 2001 (Murray 2). To cater for or rather make up for the decline, institutions like Kwantlen Polytechnic University are left with raising the fees as the only other available option. This means that institutions of higher learning or rather, post secondary school learning institutions such as Kwantlen Polytechnic University have to do a lot with very little. While institutions of higher learning such as Kwantlen Polytechnic University are mandated to provide students with the courses and services they need to be suc cessful, Kwantlen Polytechnic University struggles with tighter and tighter financial budgets. This is a solid reason for the rising fees of Kwantlen Polytechnic University. In all these, the casualty remains to be the students (Murray 2). Financial constraints in institutions of higher learning make it more and more difficult for the students to get into courses or to receive services that are essential for their programs. For instance, students have to deal with the growing waiting lists for program offerings that are critical for them to complete their incitation, certificate, diploma or degree programs (Murray 2). Thus, Kwantlen Polytechnic University has to raise its fees to be able to provide adequately for the students program needs. Affordability is a notable challenge that has led to the rising fees of Kwantlen Polytechnic University. Fees especially tuition fees for an undergraduate degree programs have risen by more than double within the last 10 years (Murray 2). The ris ing fees of Kwantlen Polytechnic University may not have dented the levels of enrolment at the institution, but it has impacted negatively on the operations of Kwantlen Polytechnic University. Students now left with no other option than to take on much higher financial debt than was the case with their counterparts who studied at Kwantlen Polytechnic University ten years ago. Canadian Federation of Students, has expressed concerns over the $27,000 debt that an average student is forced to graduate with (Murray 2). Students are forced to take much longer time periods to complete their incitation, certificate, diploma or degree programs. This is because the rising fees of Kwantlen Polytechnic University mean with greater debt, hence the pressure and need to work part†time to be able to cater for the rising fees of Kwantlen Polytechnic University (Murray 2). The affordability crunch with relation to the institution’s cost of operation, remuneration package of instructors a nd other employees and the rising cost of learning materials and equipments are simple economic factors that have also contributed to the rising fees of Kwantlen Polytechnic University. These simple economic factors have distorted how much tuition fee revenue determines the overall revenue picture at Kwantlen Polytechnic University. In 2001 for instance, tuition fee revenues at Kwantlen Polytechnic University amounted to slightly above $ 11 million (Murray 2). This $ 11 million translated into approximately 13% of Kwantlen Polytechnic University total revenue. By 2011, tuition fee revenue has risen from $ 11 million in 2001 to approximately above $ 44 million (Murray 2). This is simply a fourfold tuition fees increase at Kwantlen Polytechnic University. This figure of tuition fees, account for approximately above 30% of total Kwantlen Polytechnic University revenues (Murray, 2). The rising fees of Kwantlen Polytechnic University over a relatively short period of time, begs a number of questions. Questions revolving around intergenerational disparities arise. People start asking questions, such as why the current generations of Kwantlen Polytechnic University students are paying much higher fees for their education than was the case with their counterparts in earlier generations. In a normal circumstance, inter†generational equity has to find a balance at some point. Making students to pay a third of their education costs today, when previous students paid only half that number strikes simple logic a situation profoundly out of balance (Murray 2). According to Kwantlen Faculty Association (KFA), internationalization of education at Kwantlen Polytechnic University is another contributing factor to the rising fees of Kwantlen Polytechnic University (Murray 3). Kwantlen Polytechnic University, many universities and colleges in the British Columbia region, recognizes the value of internationalizing their educational programs. The institution has a long and di stinguished history of opening doors of learning, career and professional opportunities to both international students and staff. Internationalization of education programs at Kwantlen Polytechnic University is not only crucial for the students, who are in a position to access a quality education within British Columbia, but also crucial for Kwantlen Polytechnic University as an institution and the university’s domestic students (Murray 3). The domestic students for example, will be able to engage in the diversity that results from having international and multi-cultural students within Kwantlen Polytechnic University classrooms. This is an important dimension of the institution’s curriculum and programs in preparing its graduate students for a world employment, career and professional opportunities driven by the forces of globalization (Murray 3). Why the Increasing Fees of Institutions of Higher Learning Such As Kwantlen Polytechnic University Diminishing government funding of institutions of higher learning such as Kwantlen Polytechnic University, is a major contributing factor in the increasing fees of such institutions in Canada. The provincial administration of British Columbia has not adequately funded institutions such as Kwantlen Polytechnic University prompting Kwantlen to seek funding from other sources among them increasing tuition fees paid by their students, seeking funding from the private sector, as well as other non-academic fees (Clarke Dopp 12). This puts a lot of pressure on students especially on those from financially disadvantaged backgrounds thereby further complicating the prospects for attaining higher education. The trouble for the Canadian students started way back in 2003, when the liberal government came to power and cut off federal transfers to post-secondary institutions such as Kwantlen Polytechnic University. The provinces on the other hand, denounced the moves but have not done enough to address the issue of in creasing tuition fees (Clarke Dopp 12). Therefore, Kwantlen Polytechnic University increases its fees due to financial deficit that it experiences due to diminishing funding from both the federal and the provincial administrations. A significant source of the rising fees of institutions of higher learning such as Kwantlen Polytechnic University, results from their current financial expenditures and transfers. Expenditures incurred by institutions such as Kwantlen Polytechnic University for purposes of their operation include those incurred in acquiring capital assets like library books, laboratory equipments to mention but a few (Losco Fife 74). Other expenditures that necessitate budgeting and transfers by institutions of higher learning include academic support, research, institutional support, student services, scholarships and fellowships, hospitals, public service, auxiliary services, maintenance of physical facilities, as well as independent operations of institutions of hig her learning. Auxiliary expenditures are also incurred by institutions such as Kwantlen Polytechnic University to facilitate institutional operations. Independent expenditures are incurred on operations not related to the primary objectives of the institution. Primary roles of Kwantlen Polytechnic University include learning, research and innovation (Losco Fife 74). Instructions are other sources of the increasing fees of Kwantlen Polytechnic University. Instructions consist of expenditure by institutions of higher learning within their various departments, schools, faculties, as well as other instructional divisions within an institution of higher learning (Losco Fife 75). Instructional expenditures also include costs incurred by departmental public service and research which are usually budgeted for separately by institutions of higher learning. Instructional expenditures also arise from activities such as those that include general academic instruction, vocational and occupatio nal instructions. Other programs that are involved in these expenditures are community education, special session instructions, basic adult education, preparatory and remedial instructions (Priest John 116). Finances for these spending are generated from the fees paid by students, hence the increasing fees of Kwantlen Polytechnic University. Research is another source of the increasing fees of Kwantlen Polytechnic University. As an institution of higher learning research is one of the primary functions of the institution besides, learning and innovation. The expenditure of institutions of higher learning such as Kwantlen Polytechnic University includes activities geared towards producing research outcomes. These activities can be commissioned by an agency either internal or external to an institution (Losco Fife 75). At some point in the course of learning, students are also required to carry out their own research as part of partial requirement for the fulfillment of their academ ic programs. All these requirement need to be funded from some source, of which students fees is a source. The need for institutions of higher learning such as Kwantlen Polytechnic University to achieve their mandate of carrying out activities that produce research outcomes prompts them to increase fees charged on students. Kwantlen Polytechnic University must support public service, academic activities, student services and the institution itself in order to operate effectively. In so doing, funds are budgeted for and set aside to finance these functions. Kwantlen Polytechnic University offers public service as part of their corporate social responsibility to the British Columbia community and public. Some of these services include free seminars and community trainings, expenditures incurred for the benefit of the general public, as well as cooperative extension services (Losco Fife, 75). Academic services supported by Kwantlen Polytechnic University include those that are integra l part of the primary role of learning, research and innovation. These services or activities are usually embedded in the incitation, certificate, diploma and degree programs that are offered at Kwantlen Polytechnic University. They must be funded to be successful, hence the increasing fees of Kwantlen Polytechnic University (Losco Fife 75). Students’ services that must be financed include admissions services and registration activities. Others include those that contribute to the physical and emotional wellbeing, social, cultural and intellectual development of the students (Losco Fife 75). Lastly, institutional support involves day-to-day operation of the institution of higher learning. Institutional operations include administrative functions, planning, and public relations, fiscal and legal services among others. These service need to be funded for Kwantlen Polytechnic University to operate effectively (Losco Fife 75). Due to increased rate of inflation and the cost of producing various services, the funding of these essential services are passed onto the students through increasing the fees they are charged for various educational programs. Other institutional functions that contribute to the increasing fees of Kwantlen Polytechnic University include the operation and maintenance of physical plants, scholarships and fellowships in the form of grants-in-aid, prizes, pell grants, fee waivers and students’ stipends (Losco Fife 75). Other functions include both mandatory such as those which are legally binding and non-mandatory transfers made at the discretion of the governing board of the institution, auxiliary enterprises, hospitals and lastly independent operations. All this operations at Kwantlen Polytechnic University must be adequately funding in order for the institution of higher learning to achieve its primary objectives of learning, research, innovation and public services (Priest John 116). This is another reason for the increasi ng fee of Kwantlen Polytechnic University. Conclusions Despite the reasons for the increasing fees of Kwantlen Polytechnic University, the fact is this action diminishes access to higher education. The most disadvantaged groups are the students from financially handicapped backgrounds. Thus the increasing fee in most institutions of higher learning limits these students from disadvantaged families (Forest and Kinser 12). However, institutions of higher learning such as Kwantlen Polytechnic University have to operate in order achieve their primary roles of learning, research, innovation and public social service. With diminishing financial grants from the provincial government, Kwantlen Polytechnic University is left with limited option to seek funding. Such sources then include increased tuition fees in addition to the private sector sources and other non-academic fees sources. Increasing tuition fees places severe constraints on students pursuing higher education thereby further co mplicating accessibility in higher education. Works Cited Clarke, Tony, Dopp Sarah. Challenging McWorld: Think, Talk, and Act. Montreal: Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives, 2005. Print. Forest, James, and Kinser Kevin. Higher Education in the United States: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2002. Print. Kane, Thomas, Orszag Peter. Funding Restrictions at Public Universities: Effects and Policy Implications. Washington DC: Brookings Institution, 2003. Print. Losco, Joseph, Fife Brian. Higher Education in Transition: The Challenges of the New Millennium. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2000. Print. Murray, Joel. â€Å"Address by Kwantlen Faculty Association (KFA) on October 6, 2011.† Web. Priest, Douglas, John Edward. Privatization and Public Universities. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006. Print. Sweet, Robert, Anisef Paul. Preparing For Post-Secondary Education: New Roles for Governments and Families. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s Universit y Press, 2005. Print. â€Å"About Kwantlen.† kwantlen.bc.ca. Kwantlen Polytechnic University, n.d. Web. This report on The Increasing Fees of Kwantlen Polytechnic University was written and submitted by user Nathan Coleman to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

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No backward anaphora: a pronoun in the first clause cannot co refer with a full NP in the second clause. Multiple conjuncts are possible. All the conjuncts are equally asserted. (87-111.) Halliday and Hasan describe coordination as an intrasentential structural device . However, Halliday and Hasan do acknowledge that sets of sentences similar to coordination do exist especially if they share parallel structure, and view coordination as a structure of the paratactic type (223) Cathrine Fabricius-Hansen and Ramm, W (2005) describe coordination as being used as a means of clause combining and information packaging at discourse level and differs from a sentence sequence by explicitly instructing the reader to keep the two propositions together in discourse processing. For example in establishing a discourse structure, licensing the inference of certain discourse relations to hold between the conjuncts, while blocking others. As a means of constructing (more) complex (clause/VP) constituents from simpler ones of the same syntactic category, coordination can be compared to certain kinds of adjunction, i.e. syntactic subordination. (175-213). Coordination has been viewd by various scholars as processes used by languages to combine units to make other units. Or as a part of the basic efficiency of language through which simple units like phrases and the simple sentence are re-cycled to make longer and perhaps more complex units. Dickens (2009) re-categorizes coordinators as existing in a semantic cline with disjuncts. By this he means a scale of varying levels of coordination: while coordinators such as and establish an equivalent and non-adverbial relationship between two clauses such that neither is subordinate to the other, disjuncts like since establish some degree of indirectness and an adverbial relationship between the clauses (42:1076-1136). 2.3. Types of Coordination Syndetic and asyndetic coordination Haspelmath and Quirk et al define asyndetic and syndetic coordination as Coordinate constructions lacking overt coordinator (asyndetic coordination) or having some overt linking devices such as conjunctions; and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet.(syndetic coordination). a). Slowly and stealthily, he crept towards his victim. And Asyndetic coordination as when the relationship of coordination is not marked overtly; a). Slowly, stealthily, he crept towards his victim. Though there exist a relatively fixed order for subclasses of adjectives in asyndetic coordination, but the order is said to be relatively free when a coordinator is present. 2.4. Asyndetic Coordination Asyndeton Despite its formidable name asyndeton is nothing more than a different way of handling a list or a series,Asyndeton uses no conjunctions and separates the terms of the list with commas. It differs from the conventional treatment of lists and series, which is to use only commas between all items except the last two, these being joined by a conjunction. Asyndeton is linked to asyndetic coordination. Asyndeton produces a hurried rhythm in the sentence. Corbett (1971) cites Aristotles observation that asyndeton was especially appropriate for the conclusion of a discourse, because there, perhaps more than in other places in the discourse, we may want to produce the emotional reaction that can be stirred by, among other means, rhythm, (470). Asyndeton is the instance of conjoining constructions in which there are no coordinators (also referred to as juxtaposition); monosyndeton, in which there is one coordinator; and polysyndeton, in which more than one coordinator is used. 2.5. Syndetic Coordination Polysyndeton Polysyndeton is a way of handling a list or a series. Polysyndeton places a conjunction (and, or) after every term in the list (except, the last). It differs from the conventional treatment of lists and series, which is to use only commas between all items except the last two, these being joined by a conjunction. Polysyndeton is linked to Syndetic coordination , as opposed to Asyndeton which is linked to Asyndetic coordination. Monosyndetic and Bisyndetic Coordination Coordinations may either have a single coordinator (monosyndetic) or two coordinators (bisyndetic). Haspelmath (2000) further proffers some relevant constituency tests for monosyndetic coordination: (i) Intonation: In certain cases, English and forms an intonation group with the following phrase, not with the preceding phrase. (ii) Pauses: In English, it is much more natural to pause before and than after and. (iii) Discontinuous order: In special circumstances, the coordinands may be separated by other material, as when a coordinand is added as an afterthought. In English, the coordinator must be next to the second coordinand (e.g. My uncle will come tomorrow, or my aunt). Not my uncle or will come tomorrow, my aunt. (iv) (Morpho)phonological alternations: When the coordinator or one of the coordinand undergoes (morpho)phonological alternations in the construction, this is evidence that they form a constituent together. (121) 2.6. The Nature of Coordination Contrastive Coordination Conjunction and Disjunction Haspelmath (2000) states that many languages distinguish between normal coordination such as A and B, X or Y, which may also be referred to as conjunction and what might be called contrastive coordination: both A and B, either X or Y. The semantic difference he views is that in contrastive coordination, it is emphasized that each coordinand belongs to the coordination and each of them is considered separately . Hence, it creates opposing notion of meaning inherent in the text because two things cannot be separately similar. And like conjunction, disjunction markers are often polyfunctional . Dickens (2009) states that Disjuncts display some coordinator-like properties, so they are grouped on a continuum with coordinators (1089). Halliday and Hassan see conjunction as a cohesive device that relates sentences. Conjunctive elements they state, are cohesive not in themselves but indirectly, by virture of their specific meanings; they are viewed as not primarily devices for reaching out into the preceding text, but express certain meanings which presuppose the presence of other components in the discourse, as similary described by Bloor and Bloor (1995) . Halliday and Hasan (1976) indicate that conjunctive relations are not tied to any particular sequence in the expression. Nevertheless, amongst the cohesion forming devices within text, conjunction is seen as the least directly identifiable relation. Conjunction acts as a semantic cohesive tie within text in four categories: Additive, adversative, causal and temporal. Additive conjunction acts to structurally coordinate or link by adding to the presupposed item and are signaled through and, also, too, furthermore, additionally, etc. Additive conjunction may also act to negate the presupposed item and is signaled by nor, andnot, either, neither, etc. Adversative conjunctions act to indicate contrary to expectation ( 250) and are signaled by yet, though, only, but, in fact, rather, etc. Causal conjunction expresses result, reason and purpose and is signaled by so, then, for, because. Adversative coordination seems always binary, it must consist of two coordinands, so is described as causal and then is described as temporal. (227) Halliday and Hassan acknowledge that conjunction is derived from coordination, they argue that Conjunction à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ is not simply coordination extended so as to operate between sentences, noting that one difference between coordinate and and conjunctive and is that coordinate and can link any number of items, whereas conjunctive and links pairs of sentences.   They view conjunctions as expressing one or other of a small number of very general relations (238). In the same vein Halliday and Matthiessen (1999) in relation to its cohesive function state that In conjunction, the various logical-semantic relations of expansion that construe clause complex structures à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ are deployed instead as a source of cohesion. They argue that among other resources which construe clauses and clause complexes into longer stretches of discourse without the formality of further grammatical structure are conjunction and lexical cohesion (530-31). Halliday Matthiessen (1999) in extending the notion of language resources as tools of broadening and reaching out into meaning states that: in principle, any particular type of expansion or projection can be interpreted in either way, either as paratactic or hypotactic; but in fact there is some degree of partial association: certain combinations are favored, and others correspondingly disfavored. For example, in English, when one process is construed as a simple restatement of, or addition to another, the two are likely to have equal status; whereas where one is seen as enhancing the other they are usually unequal a means is secondary to what has been achieved by it, a cause is secondary to its effectà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦The second type of expansion consists in extending one process by construing another one as an addition to it (with and as the limiting case); or as an alternative to it, a replacement for it, or as some form of reservation or contrast. Here the grammar typically employs conjunctions, like and, or, but, instead, besidesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ The third type of expansion is one of enhancing the first process by anoth er one setting up a specific semantic relationship, of which the principal ones are time, cause, condition, concession and means. Here again the grammar deploys a range of different conjunctions, which mark either the enhancing clause (when, because, by, though, if and so on) or the one that is being enhanced (e.g. then at that time, then in that case, so, thus, yet), (520-1). Scott Drellishak (2004) in his thesis: A Survey of Coordination Strategies in the Worlds Languages quotes Gleitman (1965) as viewing conjunction as one of many syntactic processes that serve the purpose of indicating contrast or reducing repetition ; conjoined sentence that does not indicate contrast or reduce repetition is described as not serving any purpose. (268) 2.7. Phrasal Coordination If two expressions have different semantic roles it will not be possible to coordinate them. Although it is sometimes said that the coordinands must belong to the same phrasal category; for instance, (tea) NP or (in a Nigerian Restaurant) PP is said to be ungrammatical because it consists of an NP and a PP. However, coordination of different phrasal categories is often possible when both have the same semantic role. Also in phrasal coordination, the order of conjoined words can be influenced by the tendency for the shorter word to come first and within phrasal coordination, there can be ellipsis of the determiner (Quirk et al:610). 2.8. Clausal Coordination When two or more clauses are coordinated, certain clause constituents are often ellipted from all but one of the clauses. More often than not , the effect of ellipsis is no more than to suggest a closer connection between the content of the clauses but sometimes the effect is to indicate that there is a combined process rather than two separate processes. And and or as clause linkers are restricted to initial position. Coordinated clauses with and and or are sequentially fixed in relation to the previous clause and cannot be transposed without producing ungrammaticality in sentence structure , a clause containing a conjunct may be linked to a preceding clause by one of the coordinating conjunctions (and, or, but) but not all the conjuncts admit each coordinator (Quirk et al:552-553). 2.9. Parataxis in coordination Parataxis is viewd as the grammatical arrangement of equal constituents, clauses in this case. The parataxis is the hallmark of coordination; in most cases, the equality of the clauses is evident both grammatically and semantically; coordination can link constituents at any rank. It creates parallel grammatical structures- structures that are identical in function and usually form as well. 2.10. Symmetric and asymmetric coordination Coordinate constructions are said to have symmetrical properties such that conjuncts are paratactically construed, that a conjunct is not subordinated to another conjunct, that conjuncts have the same syntactic and semantic function ; on the other hand they have asymmetric properties such as command relationship between the first and the second conjuncts. This case is refered to as balanced and unbalanced case of coordination. 2.11. Approaches to Coordination Analysis and Coordination in Different Genres In poetic texts, the study of coordination is quite sparse and limited. For instance Miller (2007) explores biblical Hebrew poetry and the relationship of coordination to verbal gapping is what forms her point of focus. She comes up with the findings that asyndetic coordination is the hallmark of biblical Hebrew poetry and especially early poetry (41-60). Millers corpus contains 123 lines from the book of Isiah. Svetlana Petrova Michael Solf (2008) explore rhetorical relations and verb placement in the early Germanic languages . it presents a diachronic study about the distinction between coordination and subordination in discourse,it focuses on Old High German and on other early Germanic languages. Petrova and Solf consider other kinds of data, mostly from declaratives, in support of the claim that verb placement serves certain discourse functions in early Germanic languages. They come up with the finding that Verb fronting seems to have a clear functional purpose, as it is used to mark episode boundaries in Old High German. The study goes further in identifying some correlations between verb placement and discourse-structuring phenomenon in Old English, Old Saxon, and Old Norse, with similar discourse-structuring functions. A cross -linguistic approach is adopted in the study as opposed to functional approach in analysis. Ash Asudeh and Richard Crouch (2002) examine Coordination and Parallelism in Glue Semantics exploring points of convergence and divergence between approach to coordination and similar Categorial Grammar (CG) approaches. The research discusses parallelism in connection with the Coordinate Structure Constraint. The paper presents an account of the semantics of coordination, framed within the theory of Glue Semantics. The goal of a GLUE derivation as explicated in the study is to consume all the lexical premises to produce a single conclusion; stating the meaning of the sentence. Further asserting that Semantic ambiguity results when there are alternative derivations from the same set of premises. This study shares common interest with the present one as both relates coordination to instances of cohesion. While this study argues for a glue approach to coordination the present study differs on the ground of functional approach of analysis to coordination in poetic texts. David Bell (2007) examines both the frequency and function of SIA (sentence initial and) and SIB (sentence initial but) in academic writing and its importance in understanding language in literary texts. While coordinator and is more frequent in academic prose than but, SIA is much less frequent than SIB. Collected data show a marked difference in the use of SIA and SIB across different genres of academic writing with SIA and SIB being far more prevalent in the humanities journals. Furthermore, the study shows that SIA, when compared with other additive connectives such as moreover, furthermore, in addition, etc., is the most frequently occurring additive marker in academic writing, while SIB is the second most preferred connective after however. With regard to function, the study goes on to argue that both SIA and SIB in academic writing function in three very similar ways: (i) to mark off a discourse unit by indicating the last item on a list; (ii) to indicate the development of an argument; and (iii) to indicate a discontinuity or shift with a previous discourse unit. This is in line with Halliday and Hassans (1975) view as regard the function of SIA and SIB. The study further asserts that whereas the most common function of SIA is that of indicating the last item on a list, the most common use of SIB is in the development of arguments.It argues that SIA and SIB perform special functions than the alternatives of asyndetic or zero coordination, the use of discourse markers that share their broad semantic function: Moreover, furthermore, in addition, and however, respectively, or intrasentential coordination cannot perform. The study proffers that the features allow SIA and SIB to preface a wider range of lexico-grammatical units such as interrogatives, stance adverbs and other discourse connectives and to create a tighter cohesive fit. It comments that it is these special features of cohesion which are held to explain the occurrence of SIA and SIB in academic writing. The focus here is on the use of SIA and SIB in academic discourse, it excluded occurrences of SIA and SIB in academic writing from other modes such as in transcripts of conversations, in quotes from fiction or in poetic texts which is the sole focus of the present research. Halliday and Hasan (1975) on SIA as part of their larger discussion of conjunction as one cohesive device in the larger concept of cohesion describes coordination as an intrasentential structural device while conjunction is seen as a cohesive device that relates sentences. In their examination of conjuncts, SIA is described as signaling an additive relationship between sentences while but is described as an adversative. Halliday and Hasan note that one difference between coordinate and, and conjunctive and, is that coordinate and can link any number of items, whereas conjunctive and links pairs of sentences (235). Halliday and Hasan distinguish a further use of SIA, which they suggest comes closest to its structural function as a coordinator, they call it next in a series' (236). They suggest that another example would be a series of points all contributing to one general argument. In this function, Halliday and Hasan argue that And retains some of the retrospective or retrojective effect, i.e. projecting backwards that and has as a coordinator (236). Here, SIA is viewed as signaling not the last item on a list but rather the continuation of an ongoing list of items. The study explicates that however, apart from the cases cited above where cohesive And operates similarly to coordinator and, the typical context for SIA is one where there is a total, or almost total shift in the participants from one sentence to the next, and yet the two sentences are very definitely part of a text (235). Another common context in narrative fiction for this shift is at the boundary of dialogue and narrative. What have been shown here is that SIA and SIB provide special features of cohesion that alternative forms of coordination do not. Schiffrin (1986, 1987, 2006) examines utterance and turn-initial and in conversation. She argues that and has two roles in talk: An ideational role where it coordinates idea units what she calls a discourse coordinator role, and an interactional or pragmatic or discourse marker role where it continues a speakers action, i.e. marking the speakers upcoming utterance as a continuation of the content and structure of an interaction, and these two functions most often occur simultaneously (1987: 128). As a marker of functionally differentiated idea units, the presence of and signals that the speaker identifies an upcoming unit as structurally coordinated or equivalent to a prior unit. In this way, and can differentiate among other things in narrative, support and position in arguments and explanations, and can also differentiate discourse topics. However, Schiffrin stresses that identifying the nature of these units depends on textual information beyond and itself (1987: 141). In Summary Halliday and Hasan (1976), and Schiffrin (1986, 1987, 2006),see SIA as bracketing discourse units, continuing discourse units, or signaling a shift between discourse units; and what determines the discourse function of these signaled discourse units is constructed by the interaction of the linguistic properties of and with the discourse context in which it occurs. Sotirova (2004), using the works of D.H. Lawrence, has argued that SIA, as well as other connectives, are used by Lawrence to signal perspectival shifts in free indirect style (227). Huttar (2002) has examined the use of both discourse-initial and (DIA) and SIA in poetry. Huttar argues that DIA is often used to establish an imagined context already in progress or imagined prior events from which the present utterance is understood to continue. An extremely common form of DIA is that of a question addressed in response to an implied interlocutors statement and often expressing surprise at the previous implied statement. Cotter (2003) on the other hand examines the use of SIA and SIB in newspapers over a one hundred year period. She used a 100,000-word corpus of newspaper articles a mixture of local and national syndicated articles, general news, and feature articles published between 1900 and 1995. Over this period, she noted an increasing occurrence of SIA/B and concurrent decline in temporal connectives. Among other factors, Cotter argues that these connectives help to create local and global coherence in news narratives, introduce new speakers and ideas, and link a series of short paragraphs. Cotter sees this increasing use of SIA/B as indicative of a historical shift from more text-centered to more reader-centered prose. Dorgeloh (2004) looked at SIA in a corpus of British English made up of LOB (Lancaster-Oslo/Bergen, 1961) and FLOB (Freiburg Lancaster-Oslo/Bergen, 1991). She indicates a decline in the use of SIA in both academic and newspaper writing. From her analysis she concludes that in written Modern English, SIA, where it does occur, marks functional shifts on a more global level of discourse (1777). This research departs from much of the previous studies, by presenting a functional linguistic analysis which was proffered by Halliday et al. Earlier researches often focus on the frequency with which certain linguistic features occur, yet another description focuses on the functions of those features. Functional descriptions of language like the one to be adopted here, are more valuable since they offer some understanding of communicative purpose and, thus, explain the use and frequency of linguistic features.

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